Since long days research works on tribal and subaltern life and culture have been carrying on in Bengal, India and abroad. Gayatri Chakraborty Spivak has done most important and vivid works on Indian tribal society. Her ‘Subaltern Studies, Deconstructing Historiography’, which is edited by Ranajit Guha, should be mentioned here.
In Bengali literature, under-dog people, subaltern people, people of lower castes are first seen in the novels and short stories of Sharatchandra. Then in the fiction of Tarashankar, Bhibhutibhushan (Bandyopadhyay), Satinath Bhaduri,
Banaphul (Dr. Balaichand Mukhopadhyay) and afterwards in that of Subodh Ghosh and Mahasweta Devi the life and culture of tribes and subalterns are
represented widely and vividly.
Our area of research is Subodh Ghosh’s fiction. Subodh Ghosh, an
eminent Bengali writer of post Second World War, has presented various
aspects of Indian tribes — their struggle for existence, problems of earning
livelihood, their cultures, habits, believes, rituals, interactions and conflicts with civilized society, views of Indian National Congress regarding Indian tribes etc. — in many of his essays, short stories and in some novels.
Some of his important essays where different aspects of life and culture of Indian tribes and their various problems and difficulties are presented are the
followings —
1. ‘Adibasir Sanskritik Samasya’ (Cultural Problems of the Tribes)
2. ‘Upajatiya Samaj Sanhati’ (Social Integration of the Tribes)
3. ‘Majuri Samasyar Bibhinna Dik’ (Different Aspects of Wage Problems)
‘Congress O Adibasi’ (Congress and the Tribes)
‘Adibasi Samasya O Visheshagner Abhimat’ (Problems of the Tribes and
the Opinions of the Experts)
‘Banglar Adibasi’ (The Tribes of Bengal)
‘Banglar Bibhinna Adibasi Goshthir Samajik Parichay’ (Introduction of
different Tribal Groups in Bengal) etc.
There is a problem of alphabets or script for writing tribal language.
Various attempts are made for solution of this problem. Christian missionaries have tried much for it. Richard Temple, among those Christian Missionaries
considered ‘devnagari’ as an eligible script for writing tribal language. But Subodh Ghosh thought that it was unwise and unjustified for the tribes. He thought that if ‘devnagari’ would be adopted for writing the language of the tribes it would be like a torture to them. His opinion was that any other
Indian script may be adopted for writing tribal language. Subodh Ghosh thought about the problem deeply and therefore he had reviewed the views of Mr. Greekson, Mr. Simington, Mr. Marret etc. expressed his views as such —
The tribal people should adopt an advanced Indian language for the
development of their own society and culture. Indian language is not at all
foreign to the tribes. The root of Tribal culture and that of the Hindu culture was united in a historical relationship in the distant past. Tribal culture is called as Proto-Hindu culture. As the historical cultural base is same, so it, at present, the base of the language of the two are to made same, there will be no loss. (“Adibasir Sanskritik Samasya” ‘Subodh Ghosh Prabandhabali’, Edited by Nitai Basu, Pub : Sahityalok, Kolkata, 2000, P-282)
Subodh Ghosh has shown in his many essays, novels and short stories how the British Forest Policy caused harm to the tribes, endangered their existence.
In his essay ‘Banglar Adibasi’ (Tribes of Bengal) Subodh Ghosh has
analysed and made integrated rather synthesized the views of Mr. Shuburt, Sharatchandra Roy, Dr. D. N. Majumder, Bhai Amriatlal Thakkar regarding the causes of distress of aboriginal tribes. And by it the conclusion Mr. Ghosh drawn is very important for the social and cultural study of Indian tribes.
The book ‘Bharater Adibasi’ (1948), written by Subodh Ghosh, is a vital
addition to the literature of Bengali essay. Various aspects of tribal life and
culture have been explored here which plays an immense role to the study of
Indian tribal life from the socio-cultural and anthropological point of view.
But the focal area of our research is Subodh Ghosh’s fiction where the tribal life and culture is being reflected. In many of his short stories like ‘Fassil’, ‘Chaturtha Panipather Yuddha’, ‘Gotrantar’, ‘Oitihasik Bastubad’, etc and in a few novels such as ‘Satakiya’, ‘Trizama’, ‘Sujata’ etc different aspects of the life of Mundas, Santals, Kurmis, Veels, Turies, Aheries, Chhatries and Mahatos are drawn with intense sympathy.
We have taken here, as example, one short story and one novel for
discussion.
‘Chaturtha Panipather Yuddha’ (The Fourth Battle of Panipath) is a very pathetic story of engulfing the tribes by the Christian missionaries and the
resistance made against and ultimate failure of the tribes. The story ‘Chaturtha Panipather Yuddha’ has begun with this sentence — ‘Our class was like a
laboratory of Anthropology’. Really the students of that class had come from
different strata of the society — like sons of wild King, Kshatriyas, upper class Hindus, and Tribes. There studied some converted Christian tribal students — Siril Tigga, Imanuel Khalkho, John Besra, Rechard Tudu and Stiphan Horo. They are from Oraon, and Munda community. The tribal students become the objects of hate and humiliation of the upper class Hindu students of that school. Stiphan Horo was not only the hero of this story but was excellent and different among all other students in that school. Stiphan Horo, who originally belongs to Munda community, was converted Christian. His original name was Runnu, Runnu Horo. He was a brilliant boy of that missionary school. He obtained highest marks in recitation and analysis of English poem, in Sanskrit and won the first prize for reciting the songs of New Testament of Bible. He had shown his excellence in playing Hockey with his legs as he was no hockey stick. Thus he became the
object of jealousy, fear and respect to the Hindu upper class Bengali mediocre students. But Horo, despite of being a converted Christian, was very much
respectful to his own cultural heritage. And so he become adverse to the Christian missionary who were engulfing their originality. Therefore Horo was victimized by that missionary school. The school authority became vindictive to Horo. He was given very poor marks in the examination in all subjects and thereby deprived him from the proud and glory of standing first in his class. Other tribal Christian students were instructed by Father Lindon to avoid Horo. But Horo still remained firm in his deep love and respect to his own culture. He did not go to Church and used to maintain his communication with Buro (old) Sokha of tribal society. He used to go to baru (hill, here Morangi hill) and danced with beating madal (drum), got intoxicated by taking ili (rice-beer). Not only that Horo went for sendera (hunting) with the wild tribal people for two days. He has danced with them
holding a hatchet (tangi) in his hand. Horo loved very much Chirki Murmu, a tribal girl. Chirki used to perform dance in their akhra and Horo beat drum (madal) there. Richard Tudu, a converted Christian, thought that as the
Murmus worship Bonga (God of Murmus), so Horo should not love Chirki ; he has done a great mistake. Father Lindon tried much to keep Horo away from tribal community and their culture and to keep him within his own grip. And so Father tried to gratify Horo by various means but became failed. Then collision occurred between tribal people and the missionaries, specially Father Lindon and Buro Sokha, Horo. Horo played flute humming the song of Chirki —
‘‘Rata mata birko tala
Re nalo hom nir ja
Raga inga’’
which means ‘listen, my young friend, don’t flee ; don’t go away leaving me alone in this deep forest.’ Father Lindon had broken his flute. Father started his
anti-tribal activity in the village of Murmus on Morangi hill. He constructed an earthen Church on the valley of that hill. It was as if to set trembling the stony alter of the old Bongas of millions of years, entering into the forest. Counter attack was made by Buro Sokha. He demolished that Church made by Father Lindon.
Consequently, Buro Sokha was sentenced life-exile and Horo was sent to prison. After got released from jail it is seen that Horo refused to be known as Stiphan. Horo said smilingly to the OC of the Police Station, who was his classmate once upon a time —
‘No, no Ghosh, I am Runnu Horo.
[OC] — Are you also a Birsaite ?
[Horo] — Yes, I am a disciple of God Birsa.
[OC] — God Birsa ? Who is he ?
[Horo] — He was our God, Ghosh. I have never saw him but have heard
from my father that he had died in the darkness of British
prison like an ordinary prisoner. Do you know Ghosh, how he
looked like ?
[OC] — How ?
[Horo] — Like Jesus Christ.’
When again Ghosh, the OC, called Horo as Stiphan Horo, he has made a strong protest, ‘say Runnu Horo’. Horo has refused with hate to bear his familiarity as ‘Stiphan’, a Christian name.
Horo was defeated. He lost his health by suffering from Tuberculosis. He also lost his lady-love Chirki who has adopted Christianity and joined Father
Lindon’s mission. Fourth Battle of Panipath.
But the question is raised that who defeated Horo as well as the tribes ?
Obviously the Christian missionaries. But are the missionaries alone ? In this
context, the nomenclature of the story is to be noted. Author Subodh Ghosh has rightly gave the name to the story as the Chaturtha Panipather Yuddha (The Fourth Battle of Panipath). In the third battle of Panipath, Marathis
became defeated by Mughals for the non-co-operation of the Rajputs and the
neutrality of Raghuji Bhonsle. Like that, here in this story, due to the neutrality of the Hindu students by keeping the tribal students away from themselves the tribes in general and Horo as particular has to be defeated in their battle with the
missionaries.
The question of the OC of the Police Station — ‘Birsa ? Who is he ?’
signifies the detachment of the Hindu middle class society from the history and culture of the tribes as well as from that of the integrated India.
‘Shatakiya’ is one of the great novels of Subodh Ghosh. There, in the
background of this novel, is Chhotonagpur plateau area — its river, spring, forest and the tribal and sub-altern people. Here author has presented a very miserable and pathetic story of tribal and subalterns of that area where they become
exploited and oppressed by Ishan Mokhter, the landlord and merchant of that
village Madhukupi. Ishan has snatched, with the help of his lethels (clubmen), a piece of land owned by Dashu Gharami, (the hero of this novel) and made him throw into the prison. Not only Dashu but other people (tribal and subalterns) were also became oppressed by that Mokhter and his manager Dukhan Singh. They
became deprived from using the minimum resources of local forest for earning their livelihood in which they had every right as tribal people. When those tribal persons — Dashu, Suren, Ratan, Jata, Tetri, Batasi, Fulki etc become unable to earn their livelihood from their village, they became compelled to go to the
coal-mine. But after some days they became retrenched from there. Then they had to take the job of soil-cutting in daily-wage system in the State Relief Scheme of the Government. But there also, they became exploited and cheated by the local manager by making false list of labourers and depriving from their actual wages.
Another thing which is rightly presented by the author in this novel is that the missionary engulfment to the helpless, illiterate and starving tribal people. Under their apparent ideology of serving the mankind, the ailing humanity, they actually made the propaganda of Christianity as an opportunist using the scope of their poverty and helplessness. Thus Sister Madlin, an important missionary character in this novel, has practically snatched Dashu’s wife Murali from Dashu. Not only that when Dashu was suffering from leprosy he did not get any permission for admission in the leprosy asylum run by the Christian missionary as Dashu refused to adopt Christian religion. Even he was not allowed to keep his own child with himself as Murali gave birth her child (legitimate son of Dashu) after she took the Christianity and married Christian Palus. Thus Dashu’s affectionate heart of a
father, an ill and helpless father, was deprived illegally and inhumanly by sister Madlin on behalf of Christian missionary. Ultimately, as a result of
pincer-oppression by the landlord and merchant in one side and by the Christian missionary on the other, Dashu leave his wretched and miserable life into the river Darani by committing suicide.
The tribal characters and the cultural environment are presented in this novel properly by using their dialect, social customs, beliefs, habits, rituals, stigmas, religious songs etc in a word by using which is called local colour. Some examples are cited here —
Tribal love song, sung by Dashu and Murali —
‘Tu yas kuthake, hei kishani ?
- Naihar yaba, dahar jani.
- Kiser eto gamar hay.
- Umar kamar bura nay.
- Kishani tur chikan chul.
- Ke dibek jhinga phul.
- Mor Ghar yabi ki ?
- Mon diba libi ki ?
- Chhal mon liba na.
- Yaiban diba na
(Kishan asked his lady-love, ‘Hallow Kishani, where are you going ?’ Kishani replied, ‘I shall go to my father’s house, I know that path.’ Then
Kishan — Which are you so proud of ?
Kishani — My body is full of youth ; not of an old.
Kishan — Kishani, your hair are very lustrous.
Kishani — Who will put cucurbitaceous flower into my hair ?
Kishan — Will you go to my house ?
Kishani — I want to give you my heart ; Are you willing to have ?
Kishan — I don’t want to have a deceitful heart.
Kishani — I shall not give you my youth.)
Song of ‘karam’ sung by tribal women with dance —
‘Dipir dipang
Anti anti dhan kati kanalir mati go
Kishaner dhiya puta kata sukhe khati go
He karam daya karo.’
(Dipir Dipang — a note of madal. We are reaping bundles of paddy-crops in the soil of canal. We are reaping with delight, the paddy-shoots transplanted by kishans. O, God Karam, be kind of us.)
A brief description of ‘karam’ by the author —
‘...karam has come, madal (drum) is beaten in akhra. In this very morning, function of jhumur dance surrounding the karam tree is in full swing.
Madhukupi’s heart is singing with joy. The cow-girls are walking ahead in groups to perform jhumur dance and to worship karam, their God. They have worn
yellow stained cloth (sharhi) and inserted paddy-stalk in their bun … The girls will call rain by singing the song of jhumur and will water the pot (handi) of karam holding their arms up, moving slowly by dancing with love and thereby make seedling in the soil of the pot.’
Social customs observed by Murali and Dashu at the time of separation in there conjugal life are —
(a) ‘Sindur mati’ — means removal of vermilion from wife’s head by
rubbing with soil. Before that the bangles put on her hands were to
be broken.
(b) ‘Patpani chira’ — to pour water on a leaf and then to tear the leaf. It
signifies the end of the responsibility of maintenance of wife by her
husband.
Social belief : The tribal people of Madhukupi have a blind faith on ‘Kapalbaba’ — their local God. Their firm belief is that Kapalbaba’s
blessing can protect them from all sorts of troubles and difficulties. They believe that the leaves of bael tree of Kapalbaba are able to cure all
diseases and they need not go to hospital for getting medicine or any
treatment.
In these two texts ‘Chaturtha Panipather Yuddha’ and ‘Shatakiya’, we have found the miserable stories of oppression and exploitation of the tribals and
subalterns by upper class Hindus directly in one hand and in the other by the Christian missionaries under the disguise of service to the mankind. In this context we can remember the most widely echoed theory of hegemony framed by Antonio Gramsci, an Italian communist.
Before Mahasweta Debi, Subodh Ghosh is that very Bengali writer who has drawn the life of Indian tribes in his writings with intense sympathy. He has
studied much about tribal life and culture. He had gone through the books of
Anthropology since his school life at Hajaribag. As Subodh Ghosh was born and brought up at Hajaribag, Bihar, he had the scope of coming in contact with the tribal people. Therefore, he has gathered a lot of experiences about their life and culture. Subodh Ghosh believed that Indian tribes have been bearing the
inheritance of ancient India in their life and culture. His famous book ‘Bharater Adibasi’ (The Tribes of India), written on Indian tribes, is not only an important addition to the literature of Bengali Essay, but a very important book for the study of tribal society and culture from the anthropological point of view.
References :
Basu, Nitai (Edited) : Subodh Ghosh Prabandhabali, Sahityalok, Kolkata, 2000.
Ghosh, Subodh : Subodh Ghosh Rachana Samagra, Edited by, Uttam Ghosh, Samir Kumar Nath, Pub: Nath Brothers, Kolkata—700 073
Spivak, Gayatri Chakraborty : Subaltern Stuties, Deconstructing Historiography, Edited by Ranajit Guha, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Uttam Ghosh : Bara Bismay Jage, Karuna Prakashani, Kolkata, 2001.
Author : Associate Professor, Dept. of Bengali, Vidyasagar University